【進化論心理學家：無神論者更聰明 因為克服「宗教本能」；「身心靈」分法錯誤】

個人長期主張，信仰宗教是人之本能的、動物性的行為。一年前針對台灣約半數哲學界人士人有「身心靈」三種能力的主張，個人對其中「靈」的存在提出質疑，個人認為「靈」不存在。他們所說的「靈」現象，個人認為其實是人的動物性。這是人類在進化過程中產生的一種可用佛洛伊德的「本能」（instinct）來解釋的現象，所以它還是人的動物性，因此應屬於「身」。「身心靈」說因此應該只是「身心」說。當時個人在 blog 上發表下面一句話：「有些人主張靈性或慧根，並認為這些高於理性，其實它們是人的動物本性，或說是人天生配備軟體的內容，或說是人的感性，且低於理性。」

「靈」或「靈性」或「慧根」的概念是給「宗教」存在預留的窗戶；個人反「身心靈」理論只是個人許多駁斥宗教中之理論中的一類。

五月份學術界著名的 “Evolutionary Psychological Science”（進化論心理學）期刊登出了一篇從進化論心理學角度的宗教研究論文，該論文指出，信仰宗教為一種本能(instinct)。這與個人長期的見解相仿。

從「進化論心理學」的角度切入宗教是非常正確且重要的角度，因為個人認為人的「宗教心」(religiosity)，其實是人的低級本能（instinct）或動物性心智，低於理智；關於本能（instinct）個人建議閱讀佛洛伊德著作。

個人多是從哲學角度談宗教問題，特別是從理性與感性理論談此問題，個人認為一般所稱的「感性」其實是「人的動物性」。在哲學領域內一般把宗教歸類為形而上學的一部份，個人主張廢除形而上學這門學問，宗教當然也要跟著消滅。

「台灣反宗教者聯盟」陳立民 Chen Lih Ming（陳哲）於 20 May 2017

下為關於《演化心理科學》（Evolutionary Psychological Science）期刊五月份上一篇研究論文的一則相關報導，更多報導見全文網址：

【英研究：無神論者更聰明 因為克服「宗教本能」】

〔自由時報 編譯陳正健／綜合報導2017-05-19  16:51〕

信仰宗教與否和智力息息相關！根據英國與荷蘭的最新研究，無神論者的平均智商更高，因為他們克服了人類信仰宗教的本能。

英國阿爾斯特社會研究（Ulster Institute for Social Research）與荷蘭鹿特丹伊拉斯姆斯大學（Erasmus University Rotterdam）聯合進行研究。研究團隊建立了「智商－錯配關聯模型」，試圖解釋為何智力與宗教信仰呈現負相關。

研究指出，信仰宗教可視為一種本能，有助人類的發展。不過，高智商的人類能超越這種本能，以更理性的方試解決問題。

另外，研究也探討本能與壓力之關聯。高智商的人更能在壓力之下，駕御自己的本能。不受本能所制約的人更能解決問題。

根據一項 2013 年的研究回顧，在成長初期，高智商小孩更有可能遠離宗教。在老年時期，智商高於平均的人也較無宗教信仰。

本研究刊登於《演化心理科學》（Evolutionary Psychological Science）期刊。

上則新聞網址：http://news.ltn.com.tw/news/world/breakingnews/2072736

【Why is Intelligence Negatively Associated with Religiousness?】

〔Evolutionary Psychological Science《進化論心理科學期刊》pp 1–12〕

Abstract (論文摘要)

We present three models which attempt to explain the robust negative association between religion and intelligence: the Irrationality of Religion Model, the Cultural Mediation Hypothesis, and the Savanna-IQ Interaction Hypothesis. We highlight problems with each of them and propose that the negative religion-IQ nexus can be understood through substantially revising the Savanna-IQ Interaction Hypothesis. We argue that religion should be regarded as an evolved domain or instinct. Intelligence, by contrast, involves rising above our instincts. It follows that an inclination toward the non-instinctive will thus be an aspect of intelligence because it will help us to solve problems. Thus, intelligence will involve being attracted to evolutionary mismatch, to that which we would not be instinctively evolved to be attracted to. It is this, we argue, that is behind the negative religion-intelligence nexus. We respond to potential criticisms of our model and we examine how this model can be further tested.

Keywords

Religion Cultural Mediation Hypothesis Savanna-IQ Interaction Hypothesis Evolutionary mismatch Intelligence 

網址：https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs40806-017-0101-0

【ATHEISTS MORE INTELLIGENT BECAUSE THEY CAN OVERRIDE “INSTINCTIVE” RELIGIOUS BELIEFS—BUT IT WILL BE THEIR DOWNFALL】

〔Newsweek, BY HANNAH OSBORNE ON 5/18/17 AT 3:31 AM〕

Atheists tend to be more intelligent than religious people because they are able to rise above the natural instinct to believe in a god or gods, scientists have said.

But according to Edward Dutton, from the Ulster Institute for Social Research in the U.K., and Dimitri Van der Linden, of the Rotterdam University in the Netherlands, this could also lead to their decline—in the same way high intelligence appears to have played a role in the fall of the Roman Empire.

Dutton and Van der Linder build on the theory that religion is instinctive, and it evolved as a behavior that helped humans become the highly successful species they are today.

There has been a great deal of research into how religion originated, with the most prevalent idea being it evolved to help societies to form —believing there was heaven and hell, for example, would ensure cooperative, social behavior over fears of eternal damnation.

But now society has developed, why does religion still exist?

Ancient Greek and Roman texts show that even thousands of years ago, the link between intelligence, religion and atheism had been formed. More recently, scientific studies suggest a clear correlation between lower intelligence and religiousness.

In a study published in the journal Evolutionary Psychological Science, Dutton and Van der Linden say the link between higher intelligence and atheism, and lower intelligence with religion, can be accounted f or by our instincts.

According to the study, our genes mean belief in religion is instinctive—it did, after all, help us develop as a species. Having a higher intelligence, they say, allows people to override these instincts and engage in more rational, and therefore enhanced problem-solving behavior.

But this is not all good news for non-believers, nor does it mean heightened intelligence will be selected, eventually leading to a species full of hyper-intelligent atheists. Instead, the ability to override your instincts would likely lead to a decline in intelligent, atheist people, because they are more likely to be antisocial and to have fewer children—or to not have them at all.

“It’s true that people who are less intelligent tend to have more children than people who are more intelligent,” Dutton tells Newsweek . “And intelligence is negatively associated with religiousness. So on that basis, you would expect religiousness to increase.

“If you have higher intelligence, you’re less instinctive. You’re lower in what you might call ‘evolved instincts’ that have evolved over thousands and thousands of years until the Industrial Revolution, when natural selection slowed down.”

He says that with intelligence being around 80 percent genetic, eventually there will be a decline in intelligence—and, as a result—a rise in religiousness. And this, he adds, could eventually lead to the fall of society. “It was commented on at the end of Rome, that the upper class weren’t having any children. It’s the same now,” he says.

Before the Industrial Revolution, parish records show that it used to be the richer, more intelligent people survived and had more children. As a result, society became more and more intelligent, up until the point of the widespread innovation of the Industrial Revolution.

“But these [breakthroughs] can only be sustained if we continue to have a certain level of intelligence, so if intelligence is decreasing then eventually the inventions that our ancestors were capable of coping with, we’ll no longer be able to cope with. We’ll go backwards,” Dutton says. “That’s what happened with the Romans.”

As a society becomes less religious, and more intelligent, we begin to lose the benefits religion brings in terms of group society. If a society becomes too intelligent, it becomes antisocial and stops breeding, and it eventually declines.

Next, Dutton plans to look more closely at the genetics of atheism, not only that it reflects high intelligence and low instincts, but that our instincts might be changing. If natural selection is becoming weaker, there may be a propensity towards instincts that would have been removed under natural selection. These instincts may have been disfavored because of their association with poor genetic health, he explains—and atheism could be an example of this.

“I think most people think it is rational to be an atheist,” he says. “But the reason why people are atheist is not necessarily some logical reasoned choice.”

網址：http://www.newsweek.com/atheism-intelligence-religion-evolution-instinct-natural-selection-610982

【Is religion an evolved domain or instinct?】

〔phys.org , May 17, 2017〕

The question about why more intelligent people tend to be atheistic dates back to the times of Romans and Ancient Greeks. The link between intelligence and religion can be explained if religion is considered an instinct, and intelligence the ability to rise above one's instincts. This is the suggestion by Edward Dutton of the Ulster Institute for Social Research in the UK, and Dimitri Van der Linden of the Rotterdam University in the Netherlands, in an article in Springer's journal Evolutionary Psychological Science.

The Intelligence-Mismatch Association Model proposed by the two authors tries to explain why historical evidence and recent survey data in different countries and between various groupings supports the stance that intelligence seems to be negatively associated with being religious.

Their model is based on the ideas of evolutionary psychologist Satoshi Kanazawa's Savanna-IQ Principles, according to which human behavior will always be somehow anchored in the environment in which their ancestors developed.

Dutton and van der Linden argue that religion should be regarded as a separate evolved domain or instinct, whereas intelligence allows people to rise above their instincts. Rising above instincts is advantageous because it helps people to solve problems.

"If religion is an evolved domain then it is an instinct, and intelligence—in rationally solving problems—can be understood as involving overcoming instinct and being intellectually curious and thus open to non-instinctive possibilities," explains Dutton.

In the proposal of their Intelligence-Mismatch Association Model, Dutton and van der Linden also investigate the link between instinct and stress, and the instinctiveness with which people tend to operate during stressful periods. They argue that being intelligent helps people during stressful times to rise above their instincts.

"If religion is indeed an evolved domain—an instinct—then it will become heightened at times of stress, when people are inclined to act instinctively, and there is clear evidence for this," says Dutton. "It also means that intelligence allows us to able to pause and reason through the situation and the possible consequences of our actions."

The researchers believe that people who are attracted to the non-instinctive are potentially better problem solvers. "This is important, because in a changing ecology, the ability to solve problems will become associated with rising above our instincts, rendering us attracted to evolutionary mismatches," adds van der Linden.

網址：

https://phys.org/news/2017-05-religion-evolved-domain-instinct.html

【Religiosity and intelligence - Wikipedia】

〔Wikipedia 維基百科〕

【GLAUBE UND IQ:Sind religiöse Menschen wirklich dümmer?

Schon antike Statistiker meinten, dass Intelligenz und Religiosität irgendwie zusammenhängen. Genau gesagt: Atheisten sind oft schlauer. Stimmt das? Und wenn ja - warum? 】

〔德國媒體 “Spektrum”, 記者Jan Osterkamp,  17.05.2017〕

Sind Menschen mit höherem Intellekt tendenziell eher Atheisten? Mit dieser Hypothese haben sich Forscher und Denker schon von der Antike bis ins Internetzeitalter herumgeschlagen, und so stehen Edward Dutton vom Ulster Institute for Social Research und Dimitri Van der Linden von der Erasmus-Universität Rotterdam in guter Tradition: Die beiden Sozialwissenschaftler veröffentlichten jetzt in "Evolutionary Psychological Science" ihrer neuen Versuch, Erklärungen für die negative Korrelation von Religiosität und Intelligenz zu finden, die immer wieder in historischen Aufzeichnungen auftaucht und durch allerlei Erhebungen gestützt wird.

Dutton und Van der Linden versuchen es nun mit einem Ansatz, der auf evolutionspsychologischen Modellen beruht. Zunächst seien sämtliche Merkmale der menschlichen Biologie – also neben der Anatomie etwa auch vererbbare instinktive Verhaltensmuster – im Wesentlichen durch die Umweltherausforderungen der Evolution vorgeprägt. Dutton und Van der Linden betrachten nun auch die Religiosität als Sonderform eines Instinkts: einer Verhaltensweise, die über so lange Strecken der Evolution sinnvoll war, dass sie sich als gängiges, nicht ständig bewusst hinterfragtes und erbliches Verhaltensmuster etabliert hat. Weil eine höhere Intelligenz Menschen aber im höherem Maß erlaubt, auch gegen instinktive Verhaltensweisen zu handeln, wenn die Situation es rational erfordert, würden Intelligenz und Religiosität negativ korrelieren.

Dafür, dass Religiosität – das heißt die generelle Bereitschaft, in bestimmten Bereichen Glaubensinhalten mehr oder weniger ohne rationale Prüfung zu folgen – tatsächlich eine "instinktive" Grundausstattung des Menschen wurde, sprechen diverse Gründe, wie auch Religionswissenschaftler argumentieren. So wachsen übersichtliche Gruppen von Menschen eines gemeinsamen Glaubens schneller eng zusammen, sie erkennen im anderen womöglich rascher eine Bereitschaft zu Kooperation und altruistischem Verzicht sowie zur Ein- und Unterordnung gegenüber Regeln und Normen oder dem aktuell gültigen sozialen Rahmen. Zudem könnten Verstöße gegen Regeln in solchen Gruppen seltener sein, die sich ständig von einer höheren Instanz bewertet sehen. Tatsächlich spricht für die Einordnung von Religiosität als Instinkt zudem, dass Instinkte in Stresssituationen quasi automatisch stärker werden – was für Religiosität sowohl bei einzelnen Individuen wie auch Gruppen nachgewiesen ist. Religiöse Menschen bekommen außerdem meist mehr Kinder – und würden so den erblichen Instinkt "Religiosität" weitergeben.

Eher das Gegenteil gilt für intelligente Menschen: Sie bekommen statistisch weniger Kinder – auch wenn andere Einflussfaktoren wie der sozioökonomische Status oder der Entwicklungsgrad der Heimatländer berücksichtigt werden. Allerdings dürfte höhere Intelligenz ebenfalls evolutive Vorteile gehabt haben, wie Forscher mit optimistischer Weltsicht anerkennen. Insgesamt führe dies zu der etwas paradoxen Situation, fassen Dutton und Van der Linden zusammen, dass die Evolutionsprozesse sowohl höhere Intelligenz wie auch stärkere Religiosität des Menschen gefördert haben, obwohl beide gegeneinanderarbeiten. Würde eine Eigenschaft dominieren, so häuften sich die Nachteile, konstatieren die Evolutionspsychologen an ausgewählten Beispielen: Extreme, fundamentalistische religiöse Gruppen werden nachweislich etwa immer weniger offen und durchlässig und stagnieren in dem von ihnen ausgestalteten Ethnozentrismus; Gruppen von Menschen mit einem allzu starken Fokus auf Intelligenz dagegen sterben bei aller Offenheit vielleicht einfach aus, weil sie keine Kinder mehr bekommen. All das, schließen Dutton und Van der Linden an, "ist zugegebenermaßen natürlich spekulativ". Immerhin erkläre ihre Sicht der Dinge aber die immer wieder bestätigte negative Korrelation von Intelligenz und Religiosität.

© Spektrum.de

網址：http://www.spektrum.de/news/sind-religioese-menschen-wirklich-duemmer/1459303

《教徒多是理性能力不足與分辨不出真實與虛幻》

《教徒多是理性能力不足與分辨不出真實與虛幻》

個人認為，信仰宗教的人理性能力較低，因為他們看不見擺在眼前的事實。一項研究指出，宗教體驗對於大腦來說，就如同使用毒品一樣。個人認為，這研究也顯示教徒分不清真實與虛幻。人腦本身有弱點，容易分不清真實與虛幻，哲學的訓練即在訓練分辨真實與虛幻的能力。

「台灣反宗教者聯盟」陳立民 Chen Lih Ming（陳哲）

下為這則研究的新聞：

【 宗教對大腦影響 美研究指：宛如嗑藥 】

〔 蘋果日報 2016 年 12 月 01 日 〕 

  

大多數人生活與信仰密不可分，甚至為了自己信仰的宗教，可能會做出旁人無法理解的事情，而一項研究指出，宗教體驗對於大腦來說，就如同使用毒品一樣。

據英國《獨立報》報導，美國猶他大學針對 12 名男性、7 名女性，共 19 名年輕的虔誠摩門教信徒進行研究，並使用核磁共振(MRI)的技術，對他們進行各種觀察監測。發現他們在進行跟宗教有關的活動時，大腦內某些區塊出現特別反應，其中控制上癮、分泌多巴胺的伏隔核(nucleus accumbens)也包括在內。而一般來說，身為大腦獎賞系統中心的伏隔核，在聽到音樂、感受到愛及使用娛樂性藥物時，也會出現特別反應。

研究負責人、神經放射研究教授安德森(Dr. Jeffrey Anderson)則指出，宗教神經科學是一個新興的研究領域，還需要更多的研究。但全球有數十億人在做出重要決定時，是憑藉著精神、宗教情感跟經驗，這對於人類的社會行為是最有力的影響力之一。（隋昊志／綜合報導）

網址：http://www.appledaily.com.tw/realtimenews/article/international/20161201/1001478/

下為英國《獨立報》的原新聞：

【Religion can have same effect on the brain as taking drugs, study finds

Researchers looked at how 19 young Mormons' brains were affected when they 'felt the spirit'】

〔Independent, Wednesday 30 November 2016〕

Religious experiences have a similar effect on the brain as taking drugs, according to a new study. 

Scientists at the University of Utah used MRI scans to monitor the brain activity of 19 devout Mormons while they carried out a variety of tasks including resting, watching a church announcement about financial reports, praying, reading quotations from non-Mormon religious leaders, and reading the Bible. 

The researchers specifically choose young Mormons – seven women and 12 men – who had all carried out the one to two years of missionary work that most members of their faith are expected to undergo. 

During the tasks the participants were told to press a button when they "felt the spirit".

When studying the brain scans, the researchers noted certain brain regions consistently lit up when the participants reported spiritual thoughts. 

These are the same parts of the brain which have lit up when participants in previous studies have listened to music, experienced feelings of love and taken recreational drugs. 

This section of the brain, the nucleus accumbens, is known as the the brain's "reward centre" which controls addiction and plays a role in the release of dopamine – one of the chemicals which control a person's mood.

Dr Jeffrey Anderson, the neuroradiologist who led the study, told CNN: "These are areas of the brain that seem like they should be involved in religious and spiritual experience. 

“But yet, religious neuroscience is such a young field – and there are very few studies – and ours was the first study that showed activation of the nucleus accumbens, an area of the brain that processes reward.

“Billions of people make important decisions in life based on spiritual and religious feelings and experiences. It's one of the most powerful influences on our social behavior. 

“Yet we know so little about what actually happens in the brain during these experiences. It's just a critical question that needs more study.”

網址：http://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/religious-effect-brain-drugs-mormon-utah-reward-centre-nucleus-accumbens-a7446301.html

下為 CNN 更詳細的報（含影片）：

【Religious thoughts trigger reward systems like love, drugs】

〔By Jacqueline Howard, CNN November 29, 2016 〕

(CNN)Most Americans, about 89%, say they believe in God, and some have felt God's presence while listening to a sermon or sensed time stand still while they were in deep prayer or meditation.

Now, a new study shows through functional MRI scans that such religious and spiritual experiences can be rewarding to your brain.

They activate the same reward systems between your ears as do feelings of love, being moved by music and even doing drugs, according to the study, which was published in the journal Social Neuroscience on Tuesday.

"These are areas of the brain that seem like they should be involved in religious and spiritual experience. But yet, religious neuroscience is such a young field -- and there are very few studies -- and ours was the first study that showed activation of the nucleus accumbens, an area of the brain that processes reward," said Dr. Jeffrey Anderson, a neuroradiologist at the University of Utah and lead author of the study.

"Billions of people make important decisions in life based on spiritual and religious feelings and experiences. It's one of the most powerful influences on our social behavior," he said. "Yet we know so little about what actually happens in the brain during these experiences. It's just a critical question that needs more study."

Mulling over Mormon MRIs

For the study, 19 devout young adult Mormons had their brains scanned in fMRI machines while they completed various tasks.

The tasks included resting for six minutes, watching a six-minute church announcement about membership and financial reports, reading quotations from religious leaders for eight minutes, engaging in prayer for six minutes, reading scripture for eight minutes, and watching videos of religious speeches, renderings of biblical scenes and church member testimonials.

During the tasks, participants were asked to indicate when they were experiencing spiritual feelings.

As the researchers analyzed the fMRI scans taken of the participants, they took a close look at the degree of spiritual feelings each person reported and then which brain regions were simultaneously activated.

The researchers found that certain brain regions consistently lit up when the participants reported spiritual feelings.

The brain regions included the nucleus accumbens, which is associated with reward; frontal attentional, which is associated with focused attention; and ventromedial prefrontal cortical loci, associated with moral reasoning, Anderson said.

Spiritual feelings trigger a reward circuit in the brain, a new study shows. The study involved MRI brain scans, such as this one. Courtesy of the University of Utah Health Sciences

"I appreciated how they went about trying to ascertain the degree of spiritual experience that a person has. Of course, there is always a subjective component to it, but they seemed to capture it relatively well," said Dr. Andrew Newberg, a neurotheologian and professor of emergency medicine and radiology at Thomas Jefferson University who was not involved in the study.

He added that the new study further supports previous research that has associated spiritual and religious experiences with complex neural networks.

"It is also interesting to see the changes occurring in the frontal attentional areas and the nucleus accumbens. These are actually areas we have hypothesized to be involved in religious practices and experiences over 10 years ago," Newberg said. "It also corroborates our prior studies of various prayer and meditation practices that found changes in the attentional areas of the brain and also the striatum," a part of the brain associated with the reward system.

Since the study results were seen only in Mormons, Anderson said, more research is needed to determine whether similar findings could be replicated in people of other faiths, such as Catholics or Muslims.

"I think that it's still an open question, to what extent there is a common network of brain regions that is active across faith traditions and types of experiences. We expect that there are differences," he said. "In other words, does it feel the same way in the same regions of the brain for a Lutheran woman in Minnesota studying the Bible as for someone in Syria contemplating religiously motivated violence?"

More research is also needed to determine the potential health benefits of such experiences, Anderson said.

The scientific literature on health-related effects of spiritual experiences is growing, said Newberg, who wrote the book "How God Changes Your Brain."

"Generally, religious and spiritual beliefs and practices reduce depression, stress and anxiety and provide people a sense of meaning and purpose," he said.

"Additionally, it is also important to understand the potential negative consequences," he said. "For example, would this study yield similar or different results if the subjects were members of ISIS and provided religious quotes and videos supporting those beliefs? That could be a fascinating study."

'This is one of the things that make us human'

Reward systems in the brain might activate during religious or spiritual experiences in part because they reinforce whatever faith-based beliefs you may have, said Jordan Grafman, director of brain injury research at the Rehabilitation Institute of Chicago and a professor at Northwestern University.

"Reinforcing your beliefs makes you feel a little bit better and secure," said Grafman, who was not involved in the new study.

He added that studying religious beliefs can reveal a lot about the human brain.

"Well, this is one of the things that make us human, right?" Grafman asked.

"There are not too many other species, as far as we know about, that have a religion," he said. "If you're simply interested in what distinguishes us as creatures, this is a great example, and that's why it's important to study the brain basis, not only of how religion affects the brain, but the brain basis of religious beliefs and how that corresponds to other kinds of cognitive processes."

上 CNN 新聞含影片網址：http://edition.cnn.com/2016/11/29/health/religious-brain-mormon-mri/

宗教止於智者

「宗教止於智者」。

「台灣反宗教者聯盟」陳立民 Chen Lih Ming (陳哲) 於 17 Sep 2016
20160917

「台灣反宗教者聯盟」立志在人間建立天堂 (搜尋台灣反宗教)

各宗教教徒汲汲營營為上天堂，我們台灣達爾主義者、台灣理性主義者、台灣人文主義者、台灣反宗教者、台灣無神論者深知此生是唯一真實，悲憫世人，立志把世間變為天堂。

「無宗教時代 後宗教時代 台灣反宗教者聯盟」陳立民 Chen Lih Ming (陳哲) 於 7 Sep 2016
20160907